Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 106

Summary - Essay Example This development saw music change into an interesting artistic industry, which changed the Africans lives through the information carried in these songs. Garvey and entertainment columnists used music concerts to urge the blacks to develop the black music to another level characterised by slow and low sound beats (Titon, 199). The purpose of advertisements included informing the public of new releases and improvement of the existing ones. This resulted to increased sales. For instance, a national dance made immense contribution to the sharp increase in record sales between 1913 -1915. (Titon, 196). The primary purpose of these records included entertainment and identifying with the music. During the World War, more black people moved to the urban ghettos. It became evident that, the immigration did not hasten the black integration into the white civilised society, however, it emerged that two types of separatism came into existence. The black’s perspective on the establishment of the ghettos formed the belief that the ghettos should grow and become self-sustaining economic and political components. This belief developed to become the black metropolis. The Africans wanted to participate in politics and develop a society where they are recognised (Titon, 98). The advertisement and press coverage in conjunction with capitalist forces from the recording companies defined the down-home blues in such a manner that they have accompaniment voices from the men in the studio and with the aspect of advertisement and live performances, increased the sales. However, the capitalist forces took a lion’s share leaving the artists or owners of the records poor (Titon, 211). For instance, the artist had to incur an expense for recording, copyrights and production. The recording and production companies would only give the artist travelling allowances in return. This made the capitalist rich and the artists poor.

Glass Ceiling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Glass Ceiling - Essay Example ual binary is a persistent feature of the workplace today and the glass ceiling is an implicit manifestation of the impediments that women face in the labor force. According to Paige Churchman, renowned feminist theorist Gay Bryan coined the term glass ceiling many decades ago to describe the invisible barriers to professional advancement that women face in the labor force. Although women have entered the paid labor force in record numbers, attainting leadership roles in a corporate environment remains a challenge and invisible barriers impeded their development. While women hope to lead by example and advance professionally, the challenges that they face today are less overt than they once were but remain important impediments to their full professional advancement (Churchman, 2009). According to Women at Work, Leadership for the Next Century, the glass ceiling is a phenomenon which invisible, artificial barriers to the professional advancement of women remain the greatest impediments to their growth within an organization (Smith, 1999). The glass ceiling is arguably the most important impediment to the professional development of women in the 21st century and it is predicated upon the sexual binary. The glass ceiling is an important challenge for women in the paid labor force because it is implicit and limits their opportunities for professional advancement. While discrimination and sexual harassment are often explicit barriers to the full inclusion of women within the paid labor force, the entry of women into paid labor in record numbers has not resulted in complete equality. According to Nora Frenkel more than 25 years ago, â€Å"women have reached a certain point. I call it the glass ceiling. There isnt enough room for all those women at the top,† (Me yerson & Fletcher, 2000, 127). The glass ceiling, in addition to â€Å"pink collar ghettos†, are important yet often ignored aspects of the challenges women face in the labor force today. These metaphors

Whistleblowers: Ethical Dilemmas and Government Role

Whistleblowers: Ethical Dilemmas and Government Role Introduction Generally, all professional jobs in the civilized societies are carried out within the framework of a given Code of Conduct that is well known and understood by all employees as well as the employer(s). In simple terms, a Code of Conduct refers to a set of ethics which regulates the behavior of each an every employee with a view to safeguarding the good reputation of the profession in question. Policing is a highly respected profession worldwide which mainly involves enforcing and maintaining Law and Order in the society; after all it is common sense that any society that does not abide by the principle of the Rule of Law is regarded as barbaric and anarchical. Whistle blowing in the uniformed organizations like police forces has tended to attract more attention from scholars of varied academic background such as political science, history, law, sociology and psychology. This paper seeks to find out who are whistleblowers, what they do, and the ethical dilemmas that face them while executing their duties particularly in the profession of cops (Police Officers).In doing so, the paper shall find out how various scholars and thinkers defines the term whistleblower(s), what are their main duties as professionals, the kind(s) of environments in which they operate and finally look at the ethical issues that face them while conducting their duties. Who Exactly Are whistleblowers? Even though the etymological origins of the term whistleblower we get clear picture from the words themselves. According to Trauman, N (2009), the term whistleblower is not an old word. To him the term is a direct professional abuse to those who do whistle blowing because they are determined persons with courage to bring corruption to an end. The term he argues refers to a person(s) who exposes secrets in the workplace in order to bring out professional malpractices such as; assaults, corruption and negligence among others. Nadler, J and Schumann Merriam (2006) On the other hand define whistle blowing as the work of calling attention to the wrongdoing occurring in the organization. Even though the culture of people coming to the fore to expose bad and unlawful actions traces its roots to the earlier decades, it was in the sixties that practice became widespread as professionals braved destruction of careers and even losing their lives (Truatman, 2009). Other scholars defines Whistle blowing as an attempt by an employee or a former employee to disclose what he or she believes is wrong doing in or by the his or her organization. What must therefore be emphasized is that whistleblowers especially in the police forces do their work at thee cost of great danger. In short, whistleblowers are individual professions who refuse to turn a blind eye to corruption despite the eminent danger of endangering their jobs lives and careers. Cops whistleblower Job Yang, S.K (2009) points out that many people are usually reluctant to become whistleblowers in most organizations. Yang argues that his argument is anchored on the premise that whistleblowers tends to be regarded by their workmates and their bosses as traitors and snitchers to other coworkers in the organization,especiaaly in the uniformed careers such as policing. On the other hand, Trautman (2009) argues that whistleblowers are viewed as who has betrayed the loyalty of their fellow cops. In his article titled â€Å"Cop whistleblowers: Despicable Traitors? â€Å" Trautman (2009) argues that whistleblowers job involves forcing corruption into the eye of the public. It is however important to note that their claims are not usually made in broad and general terms obviously because it involves parties with conflicting interests some of them driven by greed and the deadly get-rich-quick desires. It is therefore legitimate to argue that it is a job that requires someone with the cunning it usually requires. Yang, S.K (2009) adds that whistle blowing is a job that requires great courage and personal integrity. It is a job that involves going against the pressure of their colleagues and supervisors to expose dishonesty. In summary, Nadler, J and Schumann Merriam (2006) argues that whistle blowing entails reporting wrong doing to superior authorities, refusing to participate in work place wrong doing, testifying in legal proceeding and leaking evidence of wrong doing to the media. It is however important to note that whistle blowing goes in to the private sector but in the government by its very nature of being expected to be open and transparent revealing unethical and illegal actions is particularly important Examples of whistleblowers in the American History In the developed world Trautman points the New York City Frank Serpico as the first person in the American History to gain widespread fame as a police whistleblower. This was because of his courage and absolute refusal for instance to go with a system of payoffs lying, bribery and theft marked him for alienation and danger. Yang (2009) on the other hand regards Jeffrey Wigan who blew the whistle a former employers lies about the danger and addiction of smoking as yet another example of a person synonymous with whistle blowing in the recent times. Just like it was mentioned earlier, whistleblowers do their jobs at the cost of great peril. For example in the above case, Jeffrey Wigan suffered greatly for his courageous act. He was divorced by his wife and he needed the protection of the armed guards around the clock. To add salt to the injury, he lost his job ending up as a high school teacher. While responding to the press later Jeffrey expressed this dislike of the term whistleblowers arguing that it suggests you are tattle-tale or disloyal. However according to him he was not disloyal to the bit since people were dying and therefore he was responding to a high order of ethical responsibility. Jeffrey shares his idea of the term with Trautman who argues hat the term does not give enough respect to a person who truly deserves it. He therefore suggests that the best terms moral hero for that is exactly what they are. In short, civilized societies in the west and America where ethical issues and moral values are highly respected, whistleblowers both in the corporate world and the uniformed organizations like cops may gain great fame at least in the short-term despite the obvious dangers involved like in the case of Jeffrey Wigan. Jeffrey Wigan and Frank Serpico therefore can be regarded as few individuals who rose above all others in the name of integrity in the American. In the next section of the paper we shall look at the major ethical dilemmas that face whistleblowers in their work. Ethical Dilemmas That Face whistleblowers. Considering that whistle blowing is torn between competing loyalties it involves an ethical dilemma .According to Nadler, J and Schumann Merriam (2006) whistle blowing has to do with ethics because it involves a persons understanding, at a deep level, that an action his organization or workmate is undertaking is harmful. Whistle blowing also call upon virtues such as courage since standing for principles can at times be punishing. Although in the developed world laws are there to protect the whistleblowers, people who feel threatened by the revelations can mistreat the whistleblower to the extent of marginalizing or forcing him out of the public office. In some occasion however the role of whistleblowers has catapulted people in to higher offices thereby earning respect of the constituents. What must be emphasized is that whistleblowers undergo retaliation to the extent of being fired or vilified. And since societies recognize the need to report wrongdoing and corruption legal structures especially in the developed world has been developed to, protect the whistleblower. Nadler, J and Schumann Merriam (2006) further argues that when a person encounters wrongdoing in the public sphere, his first step should be to use the organizations internal whistle blowing mechanisms.Proffessor William Black , who was himself a whistleblower when he worked as a Savings and Loans regulator in the 1980s argues that in the public sector whistleblowers face the unique problem in that their disclosure may constitute a crime. In such a case, a dilemma can occur if the ongoing misconduct is dangerous and there is no hope the abuse can end without whistle blowing Nadler, J and Schumann Merriam (2006). Since governments have straight forward line of authorities, people who see wrong doing in their places of work should start with mechanisms that the organization has set since they provide the best chance for a good solution Nadler, J and Schumann Merriam (2006). That is, one should start with the immediate boss and move up the chain of command. For example, if a councilperson has a problem with the city staff she or he should go to the city manager. Meaning that before an employee whistle blows on wrong doing in his or her organization in the public he or she should try using the organizations internal mechanisms. Thereby protecting the reputation of the organization first and foremost, those of the employees and also denying competitors a chance to soil the organization for their own advantages. What Can Governments Do To Encourage Whistle blowing? According to Nadler, J and Schumann Merriam (2006), government bodies should encourage internal whistle blowing so that actions are taken before the illegal contracts are authorized, unethical behavior becomes the front page news ,publics money is squandered or aquifers has been polluted. An internal mechanism should be laid down to ensure that problems are sensed miles away. This, we should note applies not only to the public sector but also to the private sector which should establish internal mechanism so that problems are solved within the organization before employees feel that it is time for seeking action from outside Ravishankar, L in an article titled â€Å"Whistle Blowing in a Business Context† has provided some suggestions on how to encourage internal whistle blowing which also applies to the government bodies. Some of them include creating a policy to guide whistle blowing on illegal and unethical deeds that has formal ways of reporting violations such as hotlines, get embracement of the policy from the top officials and that all reports on illegal actions should be immediately investigated and followed without failure. In addition, laws for protecting whistleblowers should be instituted and developed so that morally upright employees may not be afraid of reporting wrong doing and corruption. Such a legal frame work should provide an enabling environment in which employees who strongly believe in ethical order in all civilized societies can be able to protect their professions and thereby safeguard the welfare of others without fear or favor. What whistleblowers should however remember is that they should always determine whether the conduct they are exposing they involves real wrong doing or mere case policy disagreements. So that in as much as a given council or board members views and opinion differs on a given issue they should remain secret as long as the problem involved does not rise to the level of misconduct. In short, leakers or whistleblowers should always be persons of great courage and personal integrity. They should not at all be witch hunters or gossipmongers out to look for personal gains and fame. Conclusion It can not be disputed that whistle blowing is a widespread practice both in the private sector and the public sector the police force as well as the private sector. It is job that involves employees within the given in the act of exposing wrong doing such as corruption, negligence, abuse and assaults. Some scholars look at the profession as an example of ethical dilemma seen whistleblowers are viewed by their colleagues as traitors.Consequently,whistleblowers are frequently retaliated to the extent of being sacked or vilified. References Yang, S .K (2009) Whistle-blowers puts MACC on trial Retrieved on September 3rd from http://www.sapp.org.my/mkini/0990822.html Chasin, B.H (1997). Inequality and violence in the United States: casualties of capitalism .Michigan: Humanities Press Trautman, N (2009). Cop Whistleblowers: Despicable Traitors? Retrieved on September 3rd from http://www.commuterssourc.jiglu.com/discussions/messages Bouza, A.V (1990). The police mystique: an insiders look at cops, crime, and the criminal justice system. Michigan: Plenum press Globalization: Threat Or Opportunity To The Developing Countries? Globalization: Threat Or Opportunity To The Developing Countries? Globalisation is most important factor that affects world economy. According to Brittan (1998) globalisation is defined as a whirlwind of relentless and disruptive change which leaves governments helpless and leaves a trail of economic, social cultural and environmental problems in its wake. Some of the issues will be dealt in this paper are the impact of globalisation on unemployment, the impact of globalisation on the international distribution of income, the impact of globalisation on world trade. Besides that, there are two models in this paper, which is Feenstra and Hansons model and Zhu and Treflers model. The process of globalisation is a reality. Globalisation has created many opportunities for growth and increase the level of standard livings. It is depends on the countries who can follow the trend and take the opportunity in order to improve themselves. 2.0 The impact of globalisation on labour 2.1 The impact of globalisation on unemployment Some opponents of globalisation argue that the developing countries will have higher level of unemployment because of the globalisation. But other economists are thinking that there will have a competition among the low wages countries, this will lead to unemployment in developing countries. It is because developed countries will create the working opportunities to the low wages developing countries. Brittan (1998) says that it is overly simplistic view that globalisation has lead the high unemployment in the developing countries. He thinks that this is because the demand of unskilled labours are decline because of the advanced of technology. Therefore, the demands of skilled labours are increasing because the company need workers who can work and operate the machine and this will improve their productivity compare to using low skilled workers. But Nader (1993) and Brecher en Costello (1994)have the different views with Brittan, they states that the workers has less bargaining power in the global company because of globalisation. This is true because of the fact that the border between countries is still real to workers. There exist limitations in the labour mobility of workers. According to Scholte (1997), there is an uncertainty on the job security and lower wages because of the cross border production. Therefore, globalisation is not necessarily bad to the workers. 2.2 The impact of globalisation on wages and labour standards. The second labour related issued is regards to the impact of globalisation on wages and labour standards. In order to improve their competitiveness advantages, developing countries will lower their labour wages, taxes and regulations. Brittan (1998) agrees that if developing countries became more interdependent, it is necessary to protect their workers right. Therefore, developing countries have to increase the labour wages, but this will increase the labour standards and this will reduce the levels of participation of developing countries in the world nation. Litan en Herring (1995:5) indicated that there is a limit in the way that countries can compete in a competition in laxity. The companies who specialised in the customers financial services will still prefer to deal with the countries that the financial services are proper regulated. From this review, it can be seen that developing countries need to find a way to increase their competitive advantages in order to compete in this changing world economy. Likewise, the Economic Intelligence Unit (2002) has indicated that developing countries cannot ignore the workers right to increase their international competitiveness. It is because developed countries still need to find the lower labour wages countries in order to lower their manufacturing cost. This is the opportunity for developing countries to be competitive in the world economy 3.0 The impact of globalisation on the international distribution of income Mander en Goldsmith (1996) has indicated that the distribution of worldwide income is still unbalanced. But other economists has the different view with Mander, they argues that since 1960, there is an increase in the income between the countries. Todaro agrees with this view, he also indicated that between 1960 and 1982, developing countries only experienced GDP growth of 1.1% per annum. Masson (2001) indicated the issue that comparing the relative levels in the distribution in income. Manson has divide it into two groups of countries in comparing the level of economic growth which is the countries are actively involve in the globalisation and another group is not actively involved in the globalisation. Masson found that the developed countries that actively involve in the globalisation have grown by 3.5% in eighties and increase to 5% in the 1980. Besides that, those countries which didnt actively take part did not realise any after 1980. The countries that opened their economies grew at a faster rate than the developing countries (Masson, 2001). The countries that opened their economies grew at a faster rate that the developing countries (Masson, 2001). Therefore, it is wrong to argue that globalisation has caused the inequality and unequal distribution of income in the developing countries. 4.0 The impact of globalisation on world trade. Opponents to the process of globalisation have different view on the impact of globalisation on developing countries. Brittan (1998) has pointed out that globalisation has increase the wealth of developed countries and it also not wider the poverty gap in the developing countries. Brittan states that the developing countries such as Asian, there are an improvement in their economic situation. This improvement of Asian countries has narrowed the gap of distribution of income between developing and developed countries. Although there is an improvement in their economic, but many developing countries still poor, if they cannot catch up and follow the trend of globalisation. Hak Min (1999) has the different view with Brittan on the distribution of income between developing and developed countries. He indicated that this has become less skewed because globalisation in the integrated world economy has lead to industrial growth in a limited number of developed countries. Besides that, many countries have been developed serious financial problem. It wills wider the income gap between developed and developing countries. Hak Min indicated that during 1980-1990, 25 of 121 countries in the world wide have carry out more than 90% of all financial transactions. Therefore, the low-income developing countries just share the globalise capital flows for less than 10% of the total transactions. These developments is seen by Gill en Law (1988:127) as the transnational stage in the development of capitalism. Therefore, even developing countries has tried to improve their competitiveness, but developed countries are the main controller of the world economy. Globalization give the opportunity to the developing countries to catch up, if the countries using the right method in the world economy. 5.0 Models 5.1 Feenstra and Hansons model Feenstra and Hanson (1996, 1997) have propose a model where there is a continuous goods ordering where it was being differentiated by different levels of skill intensity. This model assumes the process of produce simple final goods which requires different levels of skilled labours. They assume that developing countries are able to meet the demand of unskilled labours, whilst the demands of skilled labours are able to meet by developed countries. Therefore, companies will shift their production to developing countries to lower their manufacturing cost. Therefore, it creates the opportunity to the developing countries since there is an increase on investment and trade liberalisation. Besides that, this will increase the level of skills of developing countries since they have learnt the skills that transfer from the developed countries. 5.2 Zhu and Treflers model Feenstra and Hansons model have been extended by Zhu and Trefler(2005).Zhu and Trefler have extended it to a case that without foreign investment. Their model is referred to the Ricardian sources that based on the factor endowment. In their model, it indicated that technological catch up by developing countries, therefore many companies are shift their simple process of production to the developing countries since they are able to produce more effectively. Therefore, this will leads to a rise in skilled labour in the developing countries and developed countries; this mechanism is similar to Feenstra and Hansons model. 6.0 Conclusion Globalisation is a threat or opportunity to the developing countries? From this literature review, it has indicated that under certain situation, globalisation will lead to higher unemployment or instability of the countries. It is decide by many factors to determine whether a threat or opportunity is. In this paper, I have examined this question based on the impact of globalisation on different aspects. Undoubtedly, globalisation can help each country to improve them by sharing the knowledge, high trade flows between countries. Optimistically, it may lead to higher standard of living and servicing in the world. In other word, it may also create the inequality between developing countries and developed countries, because there is a wide gap between developing and developed nations. Therefore, it is difficult to let the developing countries to beyond the developed countries. It is depends on the policy taken by the government. If the countrys government is able to do the right things in the right time, globalisation will create the opportunity such as China is able to compete with US even China is developing countries.

Baby Bosses :: essays research papers

Hendrick, Bill. â€Å"Baby Bosses: Youth vs. experience doesn’t have to be us vs. them.† The Atlanta Journal-Constitution: Monday, 18 April 2005. â€Å"Living.† Pg. B1.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The article addresses a different side effect of the generation gap between the 79 million baby boomers (those born between 1946 and 1964) and Generation Xers (those born between 1965 and 1984). The already-present tension between managers and their subordinates becomes exponentially worse as the age difference between them continues to widen. More and more young adults are starting their careers in managerial positions instead of having to start their way at the bottom and work up to the top. Understandably, older workers often have a difficult time accepting direction from someone young enough to be their child—or, in some cases, their grandchild. Baby boomers often perceive their younger co-workers as impersonal, condescending, and disrespectful. This view is unjustified more often than not; the older employees’ views are clouded by the fear of losing their jobs or the resentment of others’ advancement over theirs. A large catalyst for tension is seniorsâ€⠄¢ lack of hesitancy when it comes to filing ageism suits. In worst-case scenarios (the likes of which are all too common in the American business world), the seniors complete their tasks while always on the lookout for the opportunity to sue, in the not-so-great American tradition of suing every individual who makes you feel uncomfortable or slighted; in response, the younger crew go about their business ever on the edge, not wanting to succumb to the negative pressures of those above them but unwilling to deal with a lawsuit.

Children`s early learning Essay

Key research findings which show the importance of parental involvement in their children`s learning in their early years, including fathers involvement have shown that parents are the child`s first educators and role models and have a strong influence on their learning. When a parent either mum or dad is actively involved in their child`s education this has a positive effect on the child`s achievement. If a parent takes interest in their child`s education by talking with them, monitoring homework, actively involved in school activities, attending parents evening, then the child will have the chance to achieve their full potential as they will have the best support. The Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky pointed out the importance of talking especially when an adult helps a child in problem solving. This showed that a child can achieve more if they have the help and support and skills from someone rather than left to their own devices. Within the early years, The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education (EPPE) (Sylva et al 2004) did a study of development of around 3,000 children between the ages of 3-7, research found that parents actively involved with reading, numbers and learning letters helped reduce the risk of special educational needs (SEN).The EPPE also found that parents who created regular opportunities for their children to play with friends at home and taking their children out were all associated with higher intellectual and social behaviour.

Effects of Alcoholic Drinks to College Students Essay

Although alcohol may give you a feeling of elation and aroused senses due to a lessening of inhibitions during the early stages of alcohol intoxication, alcohol is a depressant. It depresses the central nervous system—leading to slowed reactions, slurred speech, and ultimately, to unconsciousness. Alcohol progressively affects different brain areas. Alcohol first affects the part of the brain that controls inhibitions. When people lose their inhibitions, they may talk more, get rowdy, and do foolish things. After several drinks, they may feel â€Å"high,† but really, their nervous system is slowing down. Alcohol acts fast because it is not digested like food. Instead, it moves directly into the bloodstream from the stomach and small intestine. It takes a long time for alcohol’s effects to wear off—as it takes approximately one hour for the liver to process the alcohol in one drink. ALCOHOL’S DAMAGING EFFECTS ON THE BRAIN Difficulty walking, blurred vision, slurred speech, slowed reaction times, impaired memory: Clearly, alcohol affects the brain. Some of these impairments are detectable after only one or two drinks and quickly resolve when drinking stops. On the other hand, a person who drinks heavily over a long period of time may have brain deficits that persist well after he or she achieves sobriety. Exactly how alcohol affects the brain and the likelihood of reversing the impact of heavy drinking on the brain remain hot topics in alcohol research today. We do know that heavy drinking may have extensive and far–reaching effects on the brain, ranging from simple â€Å"slips† in memory to permanent and debilitating conditions that require lifetime custodial care. And even moderate drinking leads to short–term impairment, as shown by extensive research on the impact of drinking on driving. A number of factors influence how and to what extent alcohol affects the brain (1), including * how much and how often a person drinks; * the age at which he or she first began drinking, and how long he or she has been drinking; * the person’s age, level of education, gender, genetic background, and family history of alcoholism; * whether he or she is at risk as a result of prenatal alcohol exposure; and * his or her general health status. BLACKOUTS AND MEMORY LAPSES. Alcohol can produce detectable impairments in memory after only a few drinks and, as the amount of alcohol increases, so does the degree of impairment. Large quantities of alcohol, especially when consumed quickly and on an empty stomach, can produce a blackout, or an interval of time for which the intoxicated person cannot recall key details of events, or even entire events. Blackouts are much more common among social drinkers than previously assumed and should be viewed as a potential consequence of acute intoxication regardless of age or whether the drinker is clinically dependent on alcohol (2). White and colleagues (3) surveyed 772 college undergraduates about their experiences with blackouts and asked, â€Å"Have you ever awoken after a night of drinking not able to remember things that you did or places that you went? † Of the students who had ever consumed alcohol, 51 percent reported blacking out at some point in their lives, and 40 percent reported experiencing a blackout in the year before the survey. Of those who reported drinking in the 2 weeks before the survey, 9. 4 percent said they blacked out during that time. The students reported learning later that they had participated in a wide range of potentially dangerous events they could not remember, including vandalism, unprotected sex, and driving. Binge Drinking and Blackouts| †¢ Drinkers who experience blackouts typically drink too much and too quickly, which causes their blood alcohol levels to rise very rapidly. College students may be at particular risk for experiencing a blackout, as an alarming number of college students engage in binge drinking. Binge drinking, for a typical adult, is defined as consuming five or more drinks in about 2 hours for men, or four or more drinks for women. | ARE WOMEN MORE VULNERABLE TO ALCOHOL’S EFFECTS ON THE BRAIN? Women are more vulnerable than men to many of the medical consequences of alcohol use. For example, alcoholic women develop cirrhosis (5), alcohol–induced damage of the heart muscle (i. e. , cardiomyopathy) (6), and nerve damage (i. e. , peripheral neuropathy) (7) after fewer years of heavy drinking than do alcoholic men. Studies comparing men and women’s sensitivity to alcohol–induced brain damage, however, have not been as conclusive. Using imaging with computerized tomography, two studies (8,9) compared brain shrinkage, a common indicator of brain damage, in alcoholic men and women and reported that male and female alcoholics both showed significantly greater brain shrinkage than control subjects. Studies also showed that both men and women have similar learning and memory problems as a result of heavy drinking (10). The difference is that alcoholic women reported that they had been drinking excessively for only about half as long as the alcoholic men in these studies. This indicates that women’s brains, like their other organs, are more vulnerable to alcohol–induced damage than men’s (11). SUMMARY Alcoholics are not all alike. They experience different degrees of impairment, and the disease has different origins for different people. Consequently, researchers have not found conclusive evidence that any one variable is solely responsible for the brain deficits found in alcoholics. Characterizing what makes some alcoholics vulnerable to brain damage whereas others are not remains the subject of active research (34). The good news is that most alcoholics with cognitive impairment show at least some improvement in brain structure and functioning within a year of abstinence, though some people take much longer (35–37). Clinicians must consider a variety of treatment methods to help people stop drinking and to recover from alcohol–related brain impairments, and tailor these treatments to the individual patient. Advanced technology will have an important role in developing these therapies. Clinicians can use brain–imaging techniques to monitor the course and success of treatment, because imaging can reveal structural, functional, and biochemical changes in living patients over time. Promising new medications also are in the early stages of development, as researchers strive to design therapies that can help prevent alcohol’s harmful effects and promote the growth of new brain cells to take the place of those that have been damaged by alcohol.  ¦ As well as damaging their health, university students who drink too much alcohol may also be damaging their academic performance. Alcohol: The Benefits of Moderate Drinking Drinking alcohol in moderate amounts can have positive influences on physical and mental health. While alcohol is one of the most widely abused substances on the market, it is also one that features certain benefits for drinkers who consume it in safe amounts. For individuals who consume low levels of alcohol, benefits like reduced stress, increased cardiovascular health and decreased risk of developing type 2 diabetes offer a wealth of reasons for consumers to drink in moderation. Reduce Stress, Anxiety and Tension Research shows that the consumption of alcohol in moderate amounts can lead to certain psychological benefits. Low levels of alcohol can trigger stress reduction, easy feelings of anxiety and help consumers to reduce tension. In addition, low levels of alcohol consumption can also cause the consumer to feel more pleasant and relaxed. Studies on sleep show that people who drink in moderation get more sleep on average than do those who indulge in excess. These psychological effects of moderate drinking are positive ones that can be beneficial to the consumer. A Longer Life The positive psychological effects of drinking in moderation can be associated with the studies that show moderate drinkers tend to love longer than people who don’t drink at all or those who drink in excess. Studies from a number of different countries including China, the United States and England indicate that longevity is highest among groups of people who drink alcohol in moderation. Increased Cardiovascular Health Several studies have shown that drinking alcohol in moderation has a positive correlation with certain aspects of cardiovascular health. In particular, the risk of developing coronary artery disease is significantly lowered in conjunction with moderate consumption of alcohol. Another link between alcohol and cardiovascular health shows that moderate consumption of alcohol has a positive correlation with survivability in the event of a heart attack. Those who drink low levels of alcohol are more likely to live and less likely to experience another heart attack. Alcohol produces several positive effects on the body when consumed in low levels. For example, it increases levels of good cholesterol (HDL) and lowers levels of bad cholesterol (LDL). Alcohol also acts as a blood thinner once it enters the human body, much like common aspirin does. Thus, when consumed in moderation, it can reduce the likelihood of developing blood clots in arteries. Decreased Risk for Type 2 Diabetes While consuming alcohol in large quantities has been proven to put drinkers at a higher risk for developing type 2 diabetes, some studies show that drinking in moderation might have the opposite effect. The relationship between alcohol and type 2 diabetes is the focus of a great number of ongoing studies. Findings show, however, that moderate drinkers are less likely to develop type 2 diabetes than heavy drinkers. All of these health benefits associated with moderate drinking serve as an incentive for consumers to limit their levels of alcohol intake. Too much alcohol eliminates the health benefits described above. The best way to maximize on the health benefits of alcohol is to consume it in low levels. Negative Effects of Drinking Alcohol on Physical Fitness While occasional alcohol use may not have a major impact on physical activity, there is a clear link between sports, exercise and drinking alcohol. In fact, alcohol is the most widely used drug by athletes which is why alcohol related difficulties seem to be more common among those who exercise regularly. It is clear that drinking in excess can negatively influence exercise. Studies done to determine the influence that alcohol has on exercise Studies have shown that consuming alcohol has the following influence on exercise: *Diminishes the use of amino acids and glucose by the muscles of the skeleton *A detrimental influence on the supply of energy *An impairment in metabolism while exercising In addition, persuasive evidence implies that continual use of alcohol is connected with unfavorable effects on systems of the body and organs, including the liver, brain, heart and blood vessels. Exercising while under the influence of alcohol Drinking alcohol has a negative influence on motor skills, stamina and aerobic ability. Alcohol has the following effects on motor skills: *Delayed reaction time *A decrease in hand-eye coordination *Less precision and balance Alcohol has the following effects on strength training and short term athletic functioning: *A decline in athletic performance as a whole. *Decreased times in cycling and running *Weakened pumping power of the heart *Impaired temperature control while exercising *Weakening of grip strength *Decreased jump altitude *Lower 200 and 400-meter running performance *Becoming tired more quickly while participating in high-intensity workouts Alcohol has the following effects on aerobic performance: *Dehydration *Considerably diminished aerobic performance *Hindered 800 and 1500-meter running speeds *An increase in health risks after working out in hot atmospheres for an extended amount of time Working out with a hangover. A hangover is caused by a number of factors including, dehydration and toxicity from the alcohol. The symptoms include a gloomy mood and headache. Unfortunately, these side effects can cause a decline in athletic performance. Working out with a hangover has been shown to considerably decrease aerobic adequacy by as great as 11 percent. Long term effects that alcohol has on exercise performance Long term, heavy (more than two drinks each day) alcohol use can impair exercise in the following ways: *Hindering the cardiovascular reaction to exercise. *Cause nutritional deficits from changes in nutrient consumption, digestion and metabolism. *Cause muscle injury, wasting and feebleness in several muscles, including the heart. *Changing the body’s hormonal atmosphere It is also important to note that women might be more susceptible to the toxic results of alcohol on the heart. It is clear that drinking in excess can negatively influence exercise. Alcoholism is a growing problem in the United States and is even a problem in teenagers, too. Unfortunately, there are a variety of negative effects that are associated with the consumption of alcohol. While the negative effects can either be long term or short term, all of them start with the first drink of alcohol. Negative effects may not become apparent immediately, but as time goes on, the adverse effects of alcohol will become more and more noticeable and, in some cases, they can even lead to death. Diseases One of the negative effects that alcohol tends to have is the increased risk for multiple serious diseases. Increased consumption of alcohol can lead to serious medical problems such as cirrhosis of the liver, which often results in death. Infections, sleeping disorders and sexual dysfunctions can also be caused by consumption of alcohol. Recent studies have also shown that consumption of alcohol can actually raise the risk of certain cancers, including breast cancer, throat cancer and intestinal cancer. Consuming alcohol can be very serious and there are many grave negative effects that are caused by alcohol. Avoiding alcohol can help you avoid these adverse effects and perhaps even save your life.

Compare and contrast the ways in which Baz Luhrmann and Franco Zeffirelli present Scene 1 of Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet Essay Example

Compare and contrast the ways in which Baz Luhrmann and Franco Zeffirelli present Scene 1 of Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet Essay Example Compare and contrast the ways in which Baz Luhrmann and Franco Zeffirelli present Scene 1 of Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet Essay Compare and contrast the ways in which Baz Luhrmann and Franco Zeffirelli present Scene 1 of Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet Essay Essay Topic: To Build a Fire Baz Luhrmann and Franco Zeffirelli portrayed the film Romeo and Juliet in very different ways. Most of the scenes in the film are portrayed in different ways although there are some similarities. There are some very obvious differences including the intended audience, the setting, the place and the timing of the play. There are some smaller differences as well such as the use of music, camera angles, lighting, the way different people are introduced and many more.I think that in Luhrmanns version of the film the intended audience is a much younger audience, from teenagers to people in their mid 20s. I believe this because his version has much more action in it and is more modern which is more appealing to the younger generations than to the older generations. The audience intended for Zeffirellis version, however, is most likely the older generation than the younger generations as it is quite slow moving and focuses only on the essentials of the story than to make the audience intere sted with the lack of action. The fact that the film was made in the 1960s makes it even more appealing to the older generations as it was made when they were young and so it is familiar as well as the fact that it is set in the times of when it was written.The settings in the two versions show the most difference and in Luhrmanns version it is more modern and so reflects life as we know it today. It includes modern cars, buildings, guns, drugs and many more things instead of swords or old houses, which show just how modern it is. In Zeffirellis version, however, it is set in the Shakespearean period, which can be seen by the way that they dress, the way the buildings are made and that they use swords and so already we can see a major difference between the two films. These two examples show how without even considering the storyline we can see differences which separate the two films and while there are still a couple of big differences left there are also a few smaller changes whi ch make a big difference.In the modern version by Luhrmann the way the prologue is introduced is very strangely appealing to the audience and draws them into the film. The film starts by showing a woman on television, on the news, explaining the story to us as it is written in the book. With the television slowly coming closer and closer towards us and finally stops before it merges with the television we are watching it on. This was then followed straight after by loud opera type music showing the city in flashes from high up with the action and the drama of helicopters flying around to get you interested. Each of the important characters in the film was then introduced to us by showing them with their name appearing next to them in bold.While all of this is going on a man with a deep voice repeats everything the woman on the TV screen had just said, as it gets to the end of what he is saying the flashing of the city of Verona and the writing gets faster with the music getting more and more dramatic until finally they both stop and it goes straight to the Montagues in a car with loud obnoxious music. While they are on screen it shows THE MONTAGUE BOYS next to them to introduce them to us and referring to them as the boys adds the badness to them as if they are in a gang. The way all of that is put together is very clever as it immediately gets the audience interested in the film and want to watch the rest of it. The way it all goes by so fast as well adds to the action which appeals to the younger generation.In the older version by Zeffirelli the way it is shown to us is very different to the one I just described. Zeffirelli prefers the softer approach to the film trying to draw you into it which almost immediately would make the younger generation bored but interesting for the older generations. Zeffirelli shows Verona from high up in the air in soft focus to add the touch of innocence to the place with very soft music playing and a man with a very calm voic e reading the introduction to us. When the man has finished it goes straight to the part where the Montagues see the Capulets and try to start trouble between them.He doesnt want to add any drama or action to the play and would rather get straight into the action of the play, which is good in some ways but not in others. Its good for people that want to know the story of Romeo and Juliet and are not so concerned with any of the drama and action or the way certain things are portrayed, however, it is also bad as it can lose the audiences interest in the film. There is a difference in music as well, which plays a major part in the introduction of the film. In Luhrmanns version the loud music makes the audience interested while also showing the kind of atmosphere that there is in Verona. Zeffirellis way of using soft music, however, shows the innocence of the setting and starts the film calmly without knowing what to expect unlike Luhrmanns version where you know you will expect drama. In the modern film the director has made the Montagues drive into a gas station with the camera on the floor and the car coming straight to it as if it is going to run it over but stops just before it can. It then shows the Montagues talking to each other but doing it in a very loud and menacing way and as Benvolio walks off screen the other two carry on causing trouble. Subsequently the Capulets arrive in their car with the design very much the same as the Montagues car but in a different colour. The car drives towards the camera again and stops just before it can run it over which is then followed straight after by a door opening.All we can see at first are the persons shoes and then when we see him dropping a cigar to the floor and stepping on it immediately shows the slickness of the person. As they are showing this mystery man cowboy music is played but then stops as the camera doesnt show the person but shows a nun and a schoolgirl going in the opposite direction with the came ra following them instead. The Montagues car is right next to a van but on the other side of the van is the Capulets so at the moment they cannot see each other. The Montagues then start harassing the nun and school girls with the camera showing the girls screaming and then driving off leaving the Capulets and Montagues right next to each other surprising them both.We can now see what the Capulets are wearing and we can see how slick they are and they get a certain respect for them straight away, which makes us feel scared of them. It is this introduction to the two families starting a fight that shows the problems already between them which will continue during the rest of the film. This is done very well with all the different types of music that are played and the way the camera moves quickly between showing each person and their reaction to the situation. The way that the camera zooms in on particular parts of people such as peoples faces and feet is also a good technique as it gets a certain effect about the person which the director is trying to achieve.In the older film the director goes straight to the Montagues who are causing trouble but not in as much detail as the other film. In this version the Montagues also see the Capulets, which is seen from their point of view from afar showing an interesting use of the camera angle, and actually go to them looking for a fight. The Montagues are much braver in this version compared to Luhrmanns version where they were cowards in the other film and the Capulets arent as sinister as in Luhrmanns due to the fact they are walking around with an old man which adds a gentleness to them. Zeffirelli doesnt really want music in this part of the film with just the use of background noise, which makes it easier for us to hear what is going on and what is being said in the film. It also allows us to pay more attention to their facial expressions rather than assume what they are like from the music being played. The camer a isnt used to its full potential in this part though as it just follows around whoever is talking at the timing and doesnt zoom in or out and is just normal.It is this part of the play where the fight scene takes place and I think Luhrmanns way of showing this is much better than Zeffirellis. Luhrmann starts off by showing the Montagues as cowards and then one of the Capulets showing his teeth which say sin on it as the camera at this point is zoomed in onto the teeth and this scares them straight away. The Capulets make the most of this chance to make fun of them and the Montagues do not like being made fun of so they purposely bite their thumb at the Capulets knowing it will end in a fight. The Capulets do not like this at all and drive their car closer to the Montagues then get out and start arguing with the Montagues.At this point while they are all arguing the camera zooms around all over the place from one Montague to another, then to a Capulet, then to their guns and then to their expressions. The Montagues see that Benvolio is coming out of the toilet and purposely end it knowing they would get shot at and then go hide. Benvolio sees this and draws his own gun out which is where we are now introduced to him by his name appearing on the screen. Straight after this happens we get introduced to Tybalt, the camera moves very slowly at this point showing him step on his cigar and emphasize the grinding of his heel on it, then the camera goes to his face and this is when his name appears.The camera switches to Benvolio holding the gun and it switches between the two characters as they speak. Between each time the camera switches it gets closer and closer to Benvolio and Tybalt until finally showing only their eyes and as all of this is going on cowboy music is being played again and it carries on throughout the shooting part. The two families are diving all over the place to get cover and while they are shooting the camera sometimes goes very slowly to dram atize what is happening or it speeds it up. We know that an explosion is going to happen at this point as it is in a gas station and they are shooting each other which seem very reckless. The Montagues drive away leaving Benvolio behind to run after them and meanwhile Tybalt dramatically takes off his coat and takes out an attachment to his gun and we see down the aim of his gun as he shoots one of the Montagues in the car from afar.The next thing we see is a lot of helicopters coming to the scene and the Prince who in this is a police officer shouts at them from a loudspeaker in the helicopter and tells them to drop their guns. There is a lot of noise at this point and they both manage to drop their guns at the same time and the camera slows this bit down and then stops straight away to when they are in the Princes office. He then explains to each of the two heads of the families the consequences if it happens again and this is the dramatic end to the fight.In the older version by Zeffirelli, however, it is much different because as the fight between the two families begins it is all because of a Montague tripping an old man that the Capulets were with and they start fighting with swords. This is then followed by a lot of people fighting instead of just a couple of people. There is still no music at this time and we can only hear the background noise and all of the shouting.They carry on fighting for a while with their swords and then we see Benvolio enter trying to stop the fight. The Montagues in this are being portrayed as cowardly in this as well, but when Tybalt enters he questions what Benvolio is doing which makes Benvolio scared to a certain point. We can tell how sinister Tybalt is straight away by the way he is talking, acting and the amount of respect he gets as soon as he enters the scene. As the fight begins again we see even more people join in at this time and it gets more and more serious as lots of people are dying.There is still no music but the camera angle is far back and high up to show the amount of people that are getting involved in this. As the prince enters fanfare music is played which immediately lets everyone know the prince is coming and they all stop fighting. The prince enters from afar allowing the audience to see the effect that he makes on the crowd of people fighting. He tells off the two families for what they are doing and has to shout so that everyone can hear and it is clear to see just how angry he is about the situation. At this point of the scene, the camera here is switching between the prince and the reactions of the families listening to him in order to increase the drama.Both Zeffirelli and Luhrmann make the introduction of Romeo in a similar way as they both start off by showing him from afar and with soft music playing showing his romantic and soft side. The only differences are the equipment used such as the presence of cars, beaches, bridges and a sunrise. Both versions show the gentlen ess of Romeo and how he is different compared to the Montagues that we see before with the use of soft focus when first seeing Romeo.In Luhrmanns version we see him on the beach before a sunrise and in Zeffirellis version we see him walking under a bridge and the soft music and the way the camera introduces him from afar creates a similar effect in both. The camera switches from far away to close up and so on until he reaches Benvolio and they then talk. The music has finally stopped at this point but soon starts again and gets louder as Romeo finds out about the fight increasing the drama. Interestingly, Romeos introduction is the only part in the first scene where both directors have shown something the same.In my opinion, I think that both films have been successful in their own way but overall from my point of view and perhaps as a younger audience, I preferred Luhrmanns version. Zeffirelli has made a good version of the play with the way it is directed but I feel he was focusin g more on telling the story of Romeo and Juliet rather than trying to get the audience interested into actually watching it and showing the range of emotions as to me it seemed quite dull and lifeless.Luhrmanns version attempted to make it exciting to the audience while still telling the story in a more interesting way. As I said earlier, Luhrmanns film is meant for the younger generations because of the action in it which would interest them, and Zeffirellis version is meant for the older generations because of the way he has just focused on the story itself without adding action. Overall, both are very good and are alike in some ways but very different in other ways, so the favourite would depend on your personal taste.

American Expansion essays

American Expansion essays American expansion to the Pacific was introduced to the people of the country by several different means. The reasons for expansion did not exclude Politics, economy, nor society. Primarily the contributions that that the rise of expansion can be attributed to include Manifest Destiny, land hunger, suspicion of British intentions as well as trade opportunities. Each was valuable, some more than others, to impel the wheels of expansionism to begin. The most important contributor to American expansion is Manifest Destiny. This term, developed by an American journalist basically state that America had a divine ( god-given) right to extend its power and civilization across the width of the North American continent. Perhaps it was the scattered missionaries in the Northwest, along with the introduction of Manifest Destiny made the idea of traveling thousands of miles, was, in fact worthwhile. Manifest Destiny was so important of an issue that the election and campaign of 1844. The Democrats were swayed by the idea and part of their campaign was that they should uplift their ennobling democratic institutions over the expanse of North America. The idea of God giving the population the right to expand their society could be accepted by God-fearing Christians, of which, most of the population was. They all could understand the idea of Manifest Destiny because it dealt with God, not property, wealth or social standing. It was an is sue that could allow people of all backgrounds to prosper. Land hunger was the second most important contributor to expansion. The land out in this wide open, western unknown was free! People wanted land because at this time land equaled wealth, and people who were not wealthy, could not buy land. This first come, first serve style allowed the people who were hungry for land to obtain it, even if they did not have the means by which to buy any land back east. This way they could even make a profi...

Make your reports irresistibly interesting - Emphasis

Make your reports irresistibly interesting Make your reports irresistibly interesting People who are extraordinarily knowledgeable unfortunately have an extraordinary capacity for being boring. So when you’re writing reports, how do you make sure they impart all the information they need to, without putting the reader to sleep? The chap in the picture knows a tip or two, and well come back to him a bit later. One thing that can make knowledgeable writers boring is an imbalance in information between writer and reader. If you know a lot, and your reader knows very little, there is a danger of factual overload. This can be very dull. (If the reader is polite, they will probably call it ‘dense’ or ‘technical’ – at least to your face.) It’s context that’s the problem. Context is the medium within which facts make sense. You, having immersed yourself studiously in your subject for months or years, are positively dripping with context. Your reader, coming face to face with the subject for the first time, isn’t. As a result, what you may find interesting, they may find rather dry. As a question-setter for the BBC quiz show Mastermind, I’m routinely confronted by this kind of imbalance. I stand by the principle that knowledge is never boring. To those who know all there is to know about their specialist subject, it’s all interesting: when you know that Joseph Gayetty is said to have invented the first commercial toilet paper in 1857, it’s interesting that Emperor Hongwu of China was ordering custom-made toilet paper for the imperial court back in the 14th century. When you know that, in cricket, the googly is usually delivered out of the back of the bowler’s hand, it’s interesting that the Australian Jack Iverson found a way to deliver it from between his thumb and forefinger. Every field of endeavour and every sector of business is stuffed with this sort of arcana. Not all facts are equally interesting So how do you persuade your readers that they should find these things just as interesting as you do? It’s not about compromising on accuracy. Without integrity, without a commitment to the facts, your reports won’t do the job you need them to do. Putting reader-appeal before accuracy might suit a tabloid newspaper, but it’s simply self-defeating when your primary goal is effective communication. Instead, it’s about identifying the elements of your report or proposal that are able to flourish without a support network of life-giving context. We might call them ‘mudskippers’, after the fish that have the ability to breathe and move around on land as well as underwater. How do you spot a mudskipper? Let’s say I have room in my report for 50 facts. Let’s say that the central, critical message of my report constitutes 20 of these. These are the facts that simply have to go in, ditchwater-dull or mudskipper-interesting, and that’s fine – this is a business report, after all. What we’re discussing here are those other 30 facts, the information that comprises your supporting argument and turns a stark list of take-home statements into an effective and fully rounded report. This is where your mudskipper-spotting skills can make the difference. As a knowledgeable person, you’re in the privileged position of being able to see the goings-on behind the green curtain. You’re the scuba diver who can see the vast, vibrant coral atoll that to the airline passenger flying overhead is just a bleak bollard in the middle of the ocean. This privileged position is hard-earned – but it’s one you have to relinquish if you want to do a good job of communicating your expertise. You have to swallow the unpalatable reality that, to your readers, not all facts are equally interesting. You’ll soon understand how Charles Darwin felt when, after spending decades establishing himself as an all-time world expert on barnacles, all anyone ever wanted to ask him about was On The Origin Of Species. It’s frustrating, but it’s necessary. How to spot a mudskipper Mudskippers – those versatile ideas that don’t perish when taken out of context – needn’t be sensational. If they are, treat them with extreme caution. And they shouldn’t be trivial. They should help the reader understand your message, but, just as importantly, they should make the reader want to understand. They’ll often jump out at you during the research process. They might be of a different category to the surrounding information (a name, rather than a number, say). They might have a hinterland (historical, geographical, cross-sectoral). They might introduce an element of humanity (a quotation might sometimes be a mudskipper). Mudskippers are facts with flavour. They’re the information equivalent of umami – that fifth flavour of savoury hard-to-describe ‘meatiness’ – the quality that makes everything just that bit more moreish. Knowledge is power. But only when you know how to use it.

Critically assess weather the glass cieling still exists in the modern Essay

Critically assess weather the glass cieling still exists in the modern workplace - Essay Example The most appropriate pattern in this situation is the formation of glass ceiling within organizations that hinder the growth of specific group of individuals. First quoted by Gay Bryant, glass ceiling refers to the barrier faced by specific groups in an organization from moving up the management cadre. The United States Labour Secretary, Lynn Martin, defined ‘glass ceiling’ as ‘Those artificial barriers on attitudinal or organizational bias that prevent qualified individuals from advancing upward in their organization into management-level positions’ Bollinger and O’Neill, (2008) p.10. The following discussion critically assesses practices adopted by organizations to eliminate glass ceiling effect and attached implications. In spite of various diversity management practices, evidences indicate that organizations have not been successful in eliminating the glass ceiling at various levels. Reasons and implications of glass ceiling have been briefly disc ussed hereafter. Employee and labour relations studies as well as organizational behaviour reveal that various practices introduced to counter the glass ceiling have been quite effective in many ways. Glass ceiling effect is seen on different economic and organizational aspects. From an economy perspective, the number of female employees has significantly risen in many parts of the world in recent years. Also, organizations are consciously adopting various diversity management practices in order to enhance their performance and also abide by the human rights constitution (Mor-Barak, 2005; p.372). These practices are specific initiatives to bring about a balance in the labour economy. This need has arisen because of various reasons such as increase in number of immigrants into foreign countries; increase in amount of knowledge and technology-driven work; changing life styles; and, increasing costs of living driven by changing businesses and globalization. From an organizational viewp oint, organizations are hiring more women at various positions and are employing distinct diversity management practices to provide opportunity to people belonging to various races, ethnic and social groups. Yet, evidences through reports, researches, news articles etc indicate that women continue to face discrimination issues at workplace. Moreover, blocking the advancement of specific groups to move up to higher management positions will hinder organizational growth to a significant extent. Breaking the glass ceiling helps organizations to harness valuable talent possessed by, women in particular, and all people, in general, at lower levels that belong to diverse groups. Impact of glass ceiling is varied in different parts of the world. In some regions, the glass ceiling is very obvious and others it is discreet, but still exists. For instance, glass ceiling is more pronounced in single-culture dominated regions like the Islamic countries, South African nations and parts of Asia. In these countries, though constitutional rights are provided to minorities as well as women in terms of work and employee relations, yet discrimination and obstacles confront individuals because of sociocultural customs and practices. Its effect is lesser in the United States, European Union, parts of Asian and Australian regions. Most of these countries are multi-cultural, multi-social and pluralistic nations, which is the reason for subtlety of glass ceiling effect in

The Monsanto Company Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Monsanto Company - Research Paper Example New technologies were also incorporated such as Roundup Ready Soybeans and Bollgard insect-protected cotton which offered farmers in-seed protection. The expansion continued through the years with acquisitions and which have seen the company become a world giant in seed technologies. The company won numerous awards in the year 2010 including being recognized among the ‘100 Best Companies to Work For’ by the Fortune Magazine. It has continued to develop farming solutions to weed and insect control and was named again in 2013 by CR Magazine among â€Å"100 Best Corporate Citizens. It also announced a $400 million to expand to allow more seed development as well as create more jobs. The company’s headquarter is in the United States but has locations across the world. These include plants for manufacturing, production facilities, and centers for research as well as learning centers all of which focus the farmers. Its locations are in all continents and its facilities have seeds for many almost all crops developed using the latest technology to ensure high yields. Their seeds range from vegetables, legumes, corn, sugar and many others. it growing popularity and expansion has seen the company acquire and own many companies such as Divergence, Inc., Chesterfield Village Rsearch Center, Aly Participacoes Ltda, CanaVialis S.A, Alellyx S.A, Semillas Cristiani Burkand, De Ruiter Seeds Group and many other companies. Monsanto Company expends over $2.6 million towards research every day. This is to ensure development and production of quality seeds to the benefit of farmer and the agricultural industry as a whole and for this reason it protects it seeds with patents. It also places patents so as to ensure farmer do not reuse seeds bought seeds and this goes towards ensuring their investment are paid for. Indeed without such protections there is no incentive for

Separation of Retail and Investment Banking Operations Essay

Separation of Retail and Investment Banking Operations - Essay Example The need to separate the two operations is the central focus of this paper, presenting arguments for and against the move in detail. Arguments in support of separation of retail and investment banking operations Financial crisis is not a new phenomenon for the banking sector in U.K and beyond. From time to time, economic hardships that have resulted in financial crisis have been observed around the world. Year 2008 global financial crisis adversely affected financial systems in various economies. This necessitated the need to manage risks in the financial sector, which is primarily dominated by banks. Following this and other affecting factors, regulation, control and reforming the banking sector is essential. Separation of retail and investment banking operations is a positive move to take in the context of the above pursuit. That is, regulation, control and reforming financial services providers. Separating retail and investment banks would mean that the each of the two becomes a s tandalone legal entity. It is important to note that retail banks handle short term and long term payments, accept deposits and offer credit services by lending funds (De Jonghe, 2010, p. 387). On the other hand, investment banks primarily deal with financial instruments. In this regard, they are also referred to as casino banks. With the separation, it would mean that adverse effects experienced by either of the banks would hardly affect the other. That is to say that if the investment banking operations experience huge losses, the resultant negative effects would hardly affect retail banking operations especially deposits. Splitting the retail and investment banking operations is an activity that would bring forth intensive regulatory frameworks in a bid to achieve the desired outcome. The regulatory frame work adopted would be one that addresses each of the two banks as a unit independent of the other. In the situation of financial hardships, the retail banking sector would recei ve the attention of both the government and the taxpayers. The investment banking sector on the other hand would be accounted for by shareholders and investors in the same context. As a result, the adverse effects of financial crisis can neither be transferred to the retail bankers nor the government when the investment banking sector is affected. Investment banks engage in highly risky financial instruments (Upper, 2007, p.64). Tax revenues are normally used to back banking operations with or without operational risks. However, separating retail and investment banking operations would ensure that the taxpayers’ money only backs retail banking operations. The involvement of investment banks in risky financial instruments and related activities would therefore not constitute any financial burden to the taxpayers. Over and above the alleviation of financial burdens to taxpayers in times of financial crisis, individual customers to both retail and investment banks would be at an advantage. In absence of the separation, deposits in retail banks are highly influenced by investment activities. This is more so if different parts of the same bank handles both retail and investment banking operations. With the separation, the opposite of this scenario is true. However, lending risks are inevitable, but they are relatively easy to address (Modigliani and Miller, 1958, p.261–

MENTORS AND TEACHERS ARE VITAL TO THE PREPARATION OF THE NEXT Essay

MENTORS AND TEACHERS ARE VITAL TO THE PREPARATION OF THE NEXT GENRATION OF PRACTITIONERS - Essay Example (Nakamura, 2009) In this regard, a mentor must create a level of trust with students whereby they feel free to ask questions, disagree with the point and do not feel de-motivated. Mentoring creates an environment of learning, which not only helps develop long-term relationship between the mentee and the mentor; however, also helps understand the subject at hand more effectively. Initially, it looks as if only mentee is the one, who gains from the â€Å"role model† in front of him, but in the long-run, mentoring and teaching in action, foster and continue mutual growth. It ensures constructive improvement in the learning process. (Wragg, 2004) In practice, when mentor demonstrates his skills to deal with patients, colleagues, and other people around him, mentee is encouraged to be like him. Therefore, mentors are intellectual professionals in their capacity and experience who guide, assist, and assess students’ performances. Mentoring is usually used as a tool to quickly achieve results whether it is used in a business to train a new staff or in a school to describe the class room management tactics to a new and inexperienced teacher. (Kerry, 199 5) Mentoring can be seen as a process whereby trained educators and learned professionals promote one-to-one learning. In all fields of practice, such as, healthcare education, business; mentoring and teaching through an interactive approach, empower learners to be competent and feel motivated because in this way, they acquire a chance to immediately evaluate their previous performance and improve in their future. (Ritchie, 2007) Mentors through good communication skills, environment of encouragement and trust amongst each other guarantee commitment to learn. For example, in a hospital when mentors guide novice nurses and medical staff regarding patient’s history and prescription, it shows that there is someone who cares about what

Literature Review on Working Capital Management Essay

Literature Review on Working Capital Management - Essay Example This review is composed of only those studies which have been published and made available through books, journals, magazines and internet. There is no doubt that working capital management is an indispensible part of everyday financial management of a firm. It is commonly understood that working capital requirement is related with the day to day operations of a firm and if the firm finds shortage of working capital, the firm is likely to face liquidity problem, which in turn affect the credit worthiness and the business as a whole. On the other hand, if the working capital position is too high, it does not sound good. Rather, it is a problem of lack of proper management. In other words, too much of working capital will affect the profitability by unnecessarily blocking funds in the current assets. Therefore, finding a proper balance between shortage and excess working capital is the key element of working capital management. The firm's liquidity and profitability are judged in terms of the working capital position of the firm. Jin Mcmenamin, in his famous book 'Financial Management: An Introduction', remarks that worki ng capital is an important measure of liquidity and volume of working capital determines the risk level. The more the working capital, less is the chance of a firm's bills are not met for payment (Mcmenamin, 1999). There have been evidences on the failure of firms that have faced either shortage or excess working capital. The short term financial decisions have got little interest among academicians in the past. However, with modern scholarly and empirical studies, the literature of working capital has grown much than ever before. M. Grass observes that shortage of working capital and excess of working capital have caused many firms to fail and has affected many firm in meeting their short term obligations (Grass, 1972). L.J. Gitman also is of the same argument that working capital management, especially for small firms is the factor that decides success or failure (Gitman, 1982). However, that does not mean that working capital is the only factor that decides the success of otherwi se of a firm. As mentioned in the above paragraph, working capital should neither be excess nor inadequate. Both these conditions are dangerous to a firm. However, working capital shortage is found to be more devastating and therefore, its occurrence should be avoided at all times. An imbalanced working capital position can be expressed through another dimension. Shortage of working capital endangers the liquidity and excess working capital affects the profitability adversely. Studies have been undertaken to empirically prove the evils of these tow danger situations. K Smith, in his paper remarks that working capital is significant because it directly affects the firm's profitability (Smith, 1980). J. B. Sarkar and Saha S N, in a case study entitled 'Profitability Crisis and Working Capital Management in the Public Sector in India', observe that the profitability of the selected public sector undertakings in India is suffered owing to inefficient working capital management (Sarkar, 1987). In anoth er study by A. K. Mukherjee entitled 'Management of Working Capital in Public Enterprises' concludes that firm's liquidity and profitability are negatively correlated (Mukherjee, 1988). He further observes that firms should avoid too much of investment in current assets, if

To what extent is regional integration in North America part of Essay

To what extent is regional integration in North America part of globalisation - Essay Example Occupying such a vast geographical area and sound population in the three countries of NAFTA, the regional integration at this level certainly helped in the globalization. Globalization is defined as a process of complex series of economic, social, technological, cultural and political changes with increasing interdependence, integration and interaction between people and companies in different locations. It involves internationalization, deterritorilization, universalization, westernization and liberalization. The term globalization was used in 1940s but scholars began applying it in early 1980s. It is reported that Theodore Levitt coined the word â€Å"globalization†. Globalization also means the process of moving close to each other by different countires with a sole objective of collective benefit in terms of trade (Colas Alejandro, 2005 and Hulsmeyer, 2003). Globalization can also be described as the the intensification and integration of the consciousness of the world as a whole. It is also used to refer to these collective changes as a process, or else as the cause of turbulent change (James, 2005, Jones,2000 and Randall,2000). Globaliza tion stimulates economic reforms whose economic efficiency and political acceptability are increased through regional cooperation (Schrim,2002). New Regionalism contributes positively for globalization in three aspects: it offers a new theoretical approach to integration theory; it develops a distinct interpretative model for the impact of globalization on states; and it compares systematically the influence of globalization and the preferences for cooperation cross-regionally in Europe and the Americas. Regional integration and globalization coexist with other and they have both positive and negative effects (Perkmann and Ngai-Ling Sum, 2002). Positive effects include higher rate of export growth, faster capital accumulation and improvement in other economic

Literature Review on Working Capital Management Essay

Literature Review on Working Capital Management - Essay Example This review is composed of only those studies which have been published and made available through books, journals, magazines and internet. There is no doubt that working capital management is an indispensible part of everyday financial management of a firm. It is commonly understood that working capital requirement is related with the day to day operations of a firm and if the firm finds shortage of working capital, the firm is likely to face liquidity problem, which in turn affect the credit worthiness and the business as a whole. On the other hand, if the working capital position is too high, it does not sound good. Rather, it is a problem of lack of proper management. In other words, too much of working capital will affect the profitability by unnecessarily blocking funds in the current assets. Therefore, finding a proper balance between shortage and excess working capital is the key element of working capital management. The firm's liquidity and profitability are judged in terms of the working capital position of the firm. Jin Mcmenamin, in his famous book 'Financial Management: An Introduction', remarks that worki ng capital is an important measure of liquidity and volume of working capital determines the risk level. The more the working capital, less is the chance of a firm's bills are not met for payment (Mcmenamin, 1999). There have been evidences on the failure of firms that have faced either shortage or excess working capital. The short term financial decisions have got little interest among academicians in the past. However, with modern scholarly and empirical studies, the literature of working capital has grown much than ever before. M. Grass observes that shortage of working capital and excess of working capital have caused many firms to fail and has affected many firm in meeting their short term obligations (Grass, 1972). L.J. Gitman also is of the same argument that working capital management, especially for small firms is the factor that decides success or failure (Gitman, 1982). However, that does not mean that working capital is the only factor that decides the success of otherwi se of a firm. As mentioned in the above paragraph, working capital should neither be excess nor inadequate. Both these conditions are dangerous to a firm. However, working capital shortage is found to be more devastating and therefore, its occurrence should be avoided at all times. An imbalanced working capital position can be expressed through another dimension. Shortage of working capital endangers the liquidity and excess working capital affects the profitability adversely. Studies have been undertaken to empirically prove the evils of these tow danger situations. K Smith, in his paper remarks that working capital is significant because it directly affects the firm's profitability (Smith, 1980). J. B. Sarkar and Saha S N, in a case study entitled 'Profitability Crisis and Working Capital Management in the Public Sector in India', observe that the profitability of the selected public sector undertakings in India is suffered owing to inefficient working capital management (Sarkar, 1987). In anoth er study by A. K. Mukherjee entitled 'Management of Working Capital in Public Enterprises' concludes that firm's liquidity and profitability are negatively correlated (Mukherjee, 1988). He further observes that firms should avoid too much of investment in current assets, if

Qualitative Analysis Lab Essay Example for Free

Qualitative Analysis Lab Essay The purpose of the experiment is to identify every cation present in an unknown solution by performing specific chemical tests. Chemical tests such as adding specific chemicals to make precipitates, adding strong and highly concentrated acids and bases, centrifuging the precipitate from the supernate, and performing a flame test are carried out to determine the presence or absence of the ions in each group. Experimental Procedure: Separation of Group I Cations: Ten drops of the unknown solution C were placed into a small test tube. Four drops of 6 M HCl were added to the unknown solution. After being stirred, the yellowish unknown developed a white, cloudy precipitate. The solution was centrifuged and a white precipitate sunk to the bottom of the test tube. One drop of 6 M HCl was added to the solution making the clear yellow supernate cloudy, which showed that not all of the Group I ions precipitated. Two more centrifuges were performed until no more precipitate formed. The clear yellow supernate was decanted into a clean dry test tube. The yellowish white precipitate was rinsed with five drops of cold tap water and stirred. This solution was then centrifuged and added to the supernate in the other test tube. Fifteen drops of tap water were added to the washed precipitate and the test tube was placed in a hot-water bath. The solution was stirred in the water bath for one minute. The now clear purplish liquid was centrifuged and there was no precipitate formed which confirmed the absence of Ag+. Three drops of 1 M K2CrO4 were added to the purple supernate, and a thick, cloudy yellow precipitate formed confirming the presence of Pb2+. Separation of Group III Cations: Five drops of 2 M NH4Cl were added to the test tube containing the clear yellow supernate from group I. The solution was stirred. Then, seven drops of 15 M NH3 were added until the solution was basic and the litmus paper turned blue. The addition of NH3 caused a light-orange precipitate to form. The two additional drops of NH3 and the twenty drops of water created a reddish-brown precipitate and a clear supernate. The solution was stirred and centrifuged. The light blue supernate was decanted from the caramel brown precipitate. Twelve drops of 12 M HCl and five drops of 16 M HNO3 were added to the brown precipitate. The mixture was carefully stirred and turned into a clear yellow liquid. The test tube was heated in a hot-water bath for about forty-five seconds to dissolve any remaining precipitate. Ten drops of water were added to the solution and was centrifuged. There was no remaining precipitate, and the clear yellow supernate was divided into two separate test tubes. Two drops of 0.2 M KSCN were added to one of the test tubes containing the yellow supernate. The solution turned to a deep, blood-red which confirmed the presence of Fe3+. After fifty drops of 6 M NH3 were added to the second test tube of the yellow supernate, the solution remained acidic and it only caused the solution to turn a paler yellow. Five drops of 15 M NH3 were added to make the solution basic by turning the litmus paper blue. The addition of the 15 M NH3 also caused an orange precipitate to form in the solution. The solution was centrifuged and decanted into a separate test tube to remove the precipitate. Four drops of dimethylglyoxime reagent was added to the solution which was then stirred. The solution turned a deep pink with the formation of a pink precipitate which confirms the presence of Ni2+. Separation of Group IV Cations: Eight drops of 6 M CH3CO2H and one drop of 1 M K2CrO4 were added to the light blue supernate from the Group III procedure. The mixture was stirred and turned to a clear yellow color with no precipitate which confirms the absence of Ba2+. Four drops of 15 M NH3 were added to the yellow supernate from the previous step to make it basic and turn the litmus paper blue. The solution retained its yellow color with no precipitate. Seven drops of 0.1 m K2C2O4 were added which caused the formation of a small amount of white precipitate. The small amount of precipitate was dissolved in ten drops of 6 M HCl. A small sponge was used to soak up a small amount of solution. Using a Bunsen burner, the solution soaked sponge was placed into the top of the blue flame. The flame was initially orange and then had sporadic bursts of red flame which confirmed the presence of Ca2+. A small amount of the original unknown solution C is absorbed by a section of sponge. A flame test is performed using a Bunsen burner. The solution soaked sponge produced an orange-yellow flame; however, the yellow was not very prominent. The solution did contain Na+, but not in a substantially large amount. 2 mL of original unknown solution C and 2 mL of 6 M NaOH were combined in an evaporating dish. Litmus paper was wetted with water and placed on the bottom of a watch glass. The litmus paper watch glass was placed over the evaporating dish. The litmus paper without extra heating immediately turned blue which confirms the presence of basic NH4+. Results: Table for Unknown C Pb2+| Ag+| Fe3+| Ni2+| Ba2+| Ca2+| NH4+| Na+| Yes| No| Yes | Yes| No| Yes| Yes| Yes| Discussion: The lead ion was found by making a supernate from water and the precipitate formed by mixing the unknown solution and 6 M HCl and decanting out the supernate. The unknown solution and HCl were added to a test tube and centrifuged to separate the precipitate from the supernate. The supernate was then decanted from the precipitate. Water was added to the precipitate and put into a hot-water bath. There was no precipitate formed after the solution was heated and centrifuged which confirmed the absence of the silver ion. The addition of K2CrO4 caused a yellow precipitate to form in the supernate. The formation of the yellow cloudy precipitate confirmed the presence of the lead ion. The iron ion was found by taking the supernate from group I and making a precipitate by mixing it with 2 M NH4Cl and 15 M NH3. The precipitate was mixed with 12 M HCl and 16 M HNO3 and heated in a hot water bath until the precipitate was completely dissolved. The supernate was then divided equally into two test tubes. One of the samples was combined with 0.2 M KSCN to form a blood-red precipitate which confirmed the presence of the iron ion. The second supernate sample was used in confirming the presence of nickel. 6 M NH3 was added to the supernate, but 15 M NH3 had to be used to make the solution basic. After centrifuging and decanting out the precipitate formed, the dimethylglyoxime reagent was added to the supernate and created a deep pink precipitate that confirmed the presence of nickel. The supernate from the group III sample was mixed with 6 M CH3CO2H and 1 M K2CrO4. There was no precipitate that formed which confirmed the absence of the barium ion. The calcium ion was found by using the supernate from the previous test and adding 15 M NH3 until the solution was basic. The precipitate was then centrifuged out and discarded. The addition of 0.1 M K2C2O4 created a small amount of white precipitate that suggested the presence of the calcium ion, but a flame test was conducted to confirm the presence of calcium. The expected red-orange flame produced by a solution soaked sponge confirmed the presence of calcium in the unknown solution. Ammonium ions were found by combining the original unknown solution and 6 M NaOH in an evaporating dish and testing if the fumes were basic. Moist litmus paper was stuck to the bottom of a watch glass which was then placed over the top of the evaporating dish. The litmus paper immediately turning blue proves the existence of ammonium ions. The sodium ion was found by performing a flame test on the original unknown solution. The original solution was added to a sponge which was put into a flame which showed a yellow-orange flame which shows the presence of sodium ions, but the intensity of the yellow did not suggest that there was a significant amount of sodium. The flame tests seem to be not as accurate since the sponge alone would burn an orange flame. Attention to the small bursts of reds and yellows in the dominate orange flame had to be highly focused since it was one of the only indications of which ions were present in the unknown solution. Conclusion: Through the formation of precipitates and supernates, the additions of acids and bases, the additions of highly concentrated solutions, and flame tests specific ions were separated out in order to determine the characteristics of the unknown solution. Unknown solution C was found in conclusion to the experiment to contain the cations lead, iron, nickel, calcium, ammonium, and sodium.

Approaches To Teaching EFL Writing

Approaches To Teaching EFL Writing Feedback in writing has recently received a growing interest from SLA researchers due to its instrumental role in second language education. Literature suggests that as an important component of language, writing skill in a second language can greatly benefit from teachers comments particularly in the form of written feedback on learners written products. Previous research has investigated the role of teachers corrective feedback on learners written assignments (e.g., Ferris Roberts 2001, Ferris 2004; Harmer, 2001) and learners expectations on teachers error correction in their written work (e.g., Lee, 2009; Nunan 1999; Williams, 2001). These studies suggest that for improvement of learners writing skills in a second language teacher feedback is indispensable. With this in mind, this chapter discusses the importance of feedback in development of EFL learners writing skills in tandem with key issues and previous studies related to corrective feedback in the literature. It first discusses the nature of writing as one of the four main skills in language acquisition/learning (i.e., listening, speaking, reading, and writing) and common approaches undertaken to teaching writing in EFL contexts. It then discusses what feedback entails and identifies different types of error correction followed by a discussion of the role of feedback in EFL education in classroom setting. Finally, this chapter summarizes and concludes the literature review which provides insights into understanding better feedback practices in EFL classrooms. What is Writing? For any study that involves investigation of learners written work, it seems necessary to establish a working definition of writing. Numerous assumptions and definitions have been proposed to specify the concept of writing in the literature. Customarily, writing refers to a set of visible signs representing elements of a language which are arranged systematically. This system is referred to as writing system of the language. Coulmas (2003) defines writing as a set of visible or tactile signs used to represent unit of language in a systematic way, with the purpose of recording messages which can be retrieved by everyone who knows the language in question and the rules by virtue of which its units are encoded in the writing system. Bryne (1979) views writing as transforming our thoughts into language; a very complex skill that requires both physical and mental activity on the part of writer. Bryne (1979) further notes that writing is the last and perhaps most difficult skill learners l earn if they ever do. While these definitions provide an understanding of the nature of writing and its qualities, what is obvious is the fact that writing is a complex and demanding process that is difficult to master particularly for those who want to produce accurate and precise pieces of writing in a second language. Among various reasons cited for complications attributed to writing, Bryne (1991) suggests three main causes that make writing an arduous task. The first, that he calls psychological problem, is caused as a result of lack of interaction and feedback between the reader and the writer. As such, to tackle this kind of problems writers rely to a great extent to their readers feedback and evaluation of their written product. Understanding this problem is of importance for language learners to improve their writing since they need to take into account their audiences likes and dislikes. The second complexity is language related; that is, lack of adequate linguistic knowledge prevents us from fully monitoring what we intend to say. This shows that linguistic competence in dominantly instrumental in developing writing skills. The third problem is cognitive, whose causes can be linked it instructional inadequacies. This emphasizes the role of writing courses in framing learners writing abilit ies as well as language teachers central roles as providers of appropriate input and feedback in such courses. As such, in light of this short review on the nature of writing task and what factors might influence a second language learners attainment of this skill, it can be inferred that teaching writing can be informed by the teachers perspectives towards such a practice in instructional settings. To further illustrate this point, the next section presents two of the most common approaches to teaching writing in a second language. Approaches To Teaching EFL Writing Writing as a Product The first approach to teaching writing, which has been known as traditional approach, is product approach, which focuses on the final product, the coherent and the error-free text (Nunan, 1999).This approach has been practiced widely since the 1950s well into 1970s. Britton (1996:30) noted that product approach emphasized correct usage, correct grammar and correct spelling in the language and that it stressed overwhelming attention toward à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦topic sentence, the various methods of developing the paragraphà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ and the holy trinity of unity, coherence and other aspects of writing. Additionally, in this approach, composing is primarily viewed as a linear process that predictably starts with a topic selection to pre-writing activities, followed by actual writing and editing. The teacher only looks at the paper when it is done. Selection of topic Pre-writing activities Writing Rewriting, editing, proofreading Figure 1: Process Line (Product Approach) There are basically two main concerns with the product approach: the written product, and the grammatical accuracy. The emphasis on written product is clear in the fact that the teacher only responds to the composition once it is finished, and not before or while it is in progress. According to Jordan (1997:11), during the practice of product approach, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦a model is provided with various exercises undertaken for learners to be able to internalize the prescribed patterns. Then, learners are à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦required to product similar or parallel text. Nunan (1999) mentioned that the composing process in the traditional approach is viewed as linear process. It proceeds systematically from the planning or prewriting stages, to composing stage, to the revising stage (usually nothing more than copy-editing), and the final draft stage, with the writer progressing from one stage to the next without backtracking. The piece of writing handed in by the learners is the final text and is supposed to be his/her best piece of work where further revision in not needed. The feedback and correction made on the texts by the teachers would not make any difference at this stage. The focus of this approach is on the final, the coherent, error-free text, thus it is also known as the product oriented approach (Nunan 1999). As such, looking at this direct effect, the product approach does not appear to fulfill the true nature of writing. It stops short at considering writing being a skill by itself, not just a manner to attain linguistic competence. It is lacking in terms of interaction between the teacher and the text, where teachers will only see the final product, not knowing how it was developed. Lastly, as it assumes that writing is a linear process and that learners know exactly what to write about in their writing, it fails to consider how learners develop their ideas and meaning. Writing as a Process The second approach of teaching writing that has been dominant over the recent years and is opposed to traditional ways of teaching writing is process approach. The predominance of process approach has given rise to the role of feedback as an essential component of writing courses. The notion of writing as process was introduced to EFL studies by Zamel (1976), who argued that advanced EFL writers are similar to L1 writers and can benefit from instruction emphasizing the process of writing. As opposed to the view of writing as a reproduction of previously learned syntactic or discourse structures, the process-based approach emphasized the view of writing as a process of developing organization as well as meaning. In light of this view, invention strategies, multiple drafts, and formative feedback from by the teacher and/or the peers are also considered important parts of writing instruction in EFL writing classrooms. A research conducted by Zamel (1983) has revealed that composing is a non-linear, exploratory, and generative process whereby writers discover and reformulate their ideas i.e., writers often backtrack and revise from the moment they start till they finish the final draft. Writers go back and forth from one stage to another is a non-systematic way. Written texts under this approach are not treated as a final and fixed product but as part of complex process, which is recursive. There would be many drafts written by the learners on a single topic and teachers would response to every draft in order to help improve their writing and finally attaining the best written piece. The whole process begin by the learners writing their first draft and submitting later to their teacher for feedback. After writing their feedback on the learners essays, the teacher returns them to the learners . The learners write another draft by taking into consideration teachers feedback. The process then is repea ted with draft going back and forth between the teacher and the learners. If a learners draft is still not satisfactory to both the learner himself/herself and the learners draft would be repeat. That means the additional draft would be the final piece of learners writing to be submitted to the teacher. Hence, what is evident here is that in traditional approach (i.e., product approach) response is given once, whereas in the process approach, responses would be given in many drafts. The intention is to build up learners confidence and also slowly attain the best piece of writing. In this approach, the main concern of the teacher is to help learners develop their ideas, therefore, throughout the earlier writing stages; the teacher would be stressing more on content. Nunan (1999) notes that the teacher focuses less on a perfect final draft product than the development of successive drafts of a text. He further states that the focus in the first instance is on quantity rather than quality, and writers are encouraged to get their ideas onto paper without worrying too much about formal correctness in the initial stages. Because of this, the traditional way of responding to a composition would not be suitable to the process writing approach. In the same token, Nunan (2001) clearly states how very different the process approach is from the traditional product-oriented approach. He contends that whereas the product approach focuses on writing tasks in which the learner imitates, copies and transforms teacher supplied models, the process approach focuses on the steps involved in creating a piece of work. The primary goal of product writing is then an error-free coherent text while process writing allows for the fact that no text can be perfect, but that a writer will get closer to perfection by producing, reflecting on, discussing and reworking successive drafts of a text. In sum, this body of literature indicates that that most scholar nowadays advocate the process approach to teaching and learning writing, and perhaps most of them would agree on this important point that: good product depends on good process. What is Feedback? The term feedback in this review and incidentally in this study embraces the notions of correction, marking, evaluation and responding. It includes what Diab (2006) terms as correction feedback which refers to the editing type and evaluative feedback with reference to the judging type. In effect, the term feedback in this study refers to any information provided to learners about the appropriateness of their performance or the general accuracy of their answers (Diab 2006). As these definitions imply, the notion of feedback on writing was traditionally understood as error corrections teachers made to learners writings. Hence, a brief review of the corrections customarily provided on learners writing errors is in order in the next section. Error Correction When learners have completed their written assignments, teachers are expected to correct them. The corrections then serve to help the learners language development by showing where their knowledge is lacking. Truscott (1996) defined error correction as the correction of grammatical errors for the purpose of improving a learners ability to write accurately (329). This definition can be broadened to include lexical errors, including word choice, word form, capitalization, and typing conventions (Truscott, 1996). However, in terms of second language writing, this definition focuses on the mechanical and form-focused aspects of writing and showing little concern for the organizational types of corrections made by the teachers. Thus, error correction should cover feedback on both linguistic and non-linguistic skills of writing. Non-linguistic features could include instructions on paragraph development, topic string (consistent links throughout the text to relate all parts to the topic), suitable transitions between paragraphs, inclusion of preambles and signposts to increase the overall readability of the written work. Thus, these concepts indicate the extensiveness of the scope of error correction indicating its vital role in developing learner writing in a second language. Learners have a mental picture of how they think a certain grammar rule works, and the corrections should help learners to adjust that picture when they are mistaken (Krashen Terell, 1985:177). Many teachers look at learners errors as part of learning process. But how do we know the extent to which we can let errors recover on their own? What types of errors are to be given more attention to? Therefore, while providing corrections on learners assignments several essential factors should be taken into account. Hendrickson (1980) arguing that simply providing all the correct forms in learners imperfect sentences is an ordeal that can be frustrating to teachers outlines four critical learner factors that have to be considered in error correction. First, one needs to be aware of learners purpose and goals for communicating in writing. Second, the teacher must take into account the learners proficiency in the target language at any given time. The third critical factor is the teachers awareness or error types and frequencies as well as how these aspects relate to the learners goals. The final and probably the most critical factor is the learners attitudes towards the nature of correction. Feedback, whether it is given through corrections or comments, has the purpose of supporting learners learning. Race (2005:95) cites four purposes for feedback: (1) It should help learners to make sense of their work in some way, (2) It should clarify the need of learning by showing the learners what they should be trying to achieve; what the outcome of their work should look like, (3) Its should enhance learners willingness to learn, and finally yet importantly, (4) Feedback should motivate the learners to develop their skills. What becomes evident from the above stated aims is that feedback is highly instrumental in helping language learners improve their level of awareness in learning by making as less mistakes as possible. At the bottom of this reasoning is the fundamental belief that by making the learners aware of the error they make and by getting them to act on those errors in some way, then it is believed that the learners will assimilate the mistakes and eventually not make them in future. In other words, correction is closely linked to language acquisition and particularly to the idea of accurately acquiring the language. This statement itself is making sweeping statements about everything from the quality of the feedback to the ability for learners to acquire language through the feedback we offer them. However, it seems to be the heart of why we do provide feedback. Indeed one could argue that institutions and learners demand feedback and that this is the reason why we provide it, but even these two groups fundamentally believe that correction in some way leads to language acquisition and demand it for that reason. Writers such as Ashwell (2001) have pointed out that with the increased importance of the writing process there may be other reasons for including feedback and these include improving the communicative effectiveness of a given written piece. In other words we correct learners and guide learners so that the written piece they eventually produce communicates their ideas as effectively as possible. This is linked closer to feedback that looks at the content of a written piece rather than the grammatical forms within it. He also points out that an additional reason for correcting learners work is simply because formal accuracy of a written piece matters and that people generally are a lot less accepting of mistakes in written pieces. Having looked at the nature of the concept of feedback, what seems to be of importance in the classroom setting is the appropriateness of the type of feedback provided for certain purposes and for certain recipients. That is, teachers should use appropriate written feedback in order to get effective learners reaction. This goes through motivating learners using their teachers written feedback. There are many types of writing feedback and there are different types of learners reactions. Since every learner has his / her own personal attributes, the type of teachers written feedback given to learners will possibly affect learners state positively or negatively. Accordingly, it is central to look at these different types of teaches written feedback and their influence on learners attainments. Types of Written Feedback Ellis (2009) in his article titled A typology of written corrective feedback types suggests a variety of feedback types for correcting learners written work. He illustrates the types of feedback by examining the various options (both familiar and less familiar) from studies of written feedback that have examined the different options of feedback to date. Ellis (2009) outlines six main methods for providing written corrective feedback. This classification is also adopted to identify the types of feedback in this study. Ellis has categorized the various types of written corrective feedback into six major categories (see Table 2.1). Table 2.1 Categories of Written Corrective Feedback (adopted from Ellis, 2009) Written corrective feedback type Description Direct CF This occurs when the correct form is given in place of an incorrect form. It is the direct correction of error. Indirect CF 1) Indicating only 2) Indicating the specific location Indirect CF occurs when an error is indicated but the correct form is not given. Ellis identifies two types of indirect CF: 1) Indicating only is when an error is noted, such as in the margin, but the exact location is not provided. 2) Indicating the specific location is when the error is underlined or given specific reference. Metalinguistic 1) Error codes 2) Brief grammatical description Metalinguistic feedback occurs when the writer is given a linguistic clue of the error. This can take two forms: 1) The use of abbreviations or error codes 2) A brief grammatical explanation usually given at the bottom of the text or on an attached form The focus of the feedback 1) Focused 2) Unfocused Feedback can take a variety of forms in the way it is given, such as the level of focus. 1) Focused feedback occurs when a limited number of language features are concentrated on. 2) Unfocused feedback occurs when many or all language features are addressed in the feedback. Electronic Electronic feedback occurs via computer mediated methods when a hyperlink is used to indicate an error has occurred. Reformulation Reformulation occurs when a first language user rewrites or reformulates the targeted second language learners text. Due to the significance of Elliss (2009) classification of feedback types in informing the analysis of the data and providing insights into this study the most important feedback types outlined in the proposed scheme will be illustrated in the preceding sections. Direct Versus Indirect Feedback A first distinction in Elliss (2009) classification is made between direct and indirect feedback. Direct feedback refers to highlighting the errors and providing the correct forms to the learners. That is, the correct form is given in place of an incorrect form. Ellis (2009) states that direct feedback has advantage because it will explicit guidance for the learners about how to correct their errors. Similarly, Bartram and Walton, (1991: 84) mentioned that direct corrective feedback, is implemented through underlining the errors and providing the right forms in the learners written work. Examples (1) and (2) below illustrate the direct and indirect types of feedback respectively. (1) at is health Sleeping late in night are very bad for our heelth and brain. As demonstrated in example (1), direct feedback can be provided by indication of the errors accompanied with their correct forms and explanations while in case of indirect corrective feedback, learners errors can be indicated by underlining the errors without any explanation or correcting it. This is can be done by indicating where errors are located only. Example (2) shows indirect feedback. (2) Sleeping late in night are very bad for our heelth and brain. Concurring with Ellis (2009), Ferris and Roberts (2001) suggest that direct corrective feedback is better than indirect corrective feedback with learners/writers of low levels of proficiency, but conversely, Hedge (2000) argues that the dangers of its spoon-feeding effect are that learners overlook their own role in the correction process and may become passive. This is because learners can just mechanically copy the ready-made correction without figuring out the reasons. To make full use of the advantages of direct feedback and indirect feedback and avoid their disadvantages, teachers can consider combining them together. Focused Versus Unfocused Feedback A second distinction in feedback typology is made between focused and unfocused corrective feedback. Ellis (2009) states that in focused corrective feedback much attention is given on one or two types of error which assists the learner to examine several corrections on the same type of error. In unfocused corrective feedback, on the other hand, the learner or the learner is asked to engage in different type of errors, which may confuse the learner focusing on the error. Focused and unfocused correction feedback can also involve all other types of feedback such as direct, indirect, metalinguistic, focused versus unfocused and electronic corrective feedback (Ellis, ibid). Written corrective feedback studies (e.g., Bitchener, Young Cameron, 2005; Truscott, 2009; Sheen, 2007) suggest that when written corrective feedback is focused it is likely to be more effective in promoting acquisition, than unfocused corrective feedback. Sheen (2007), for example, in his study using focused corrective feedback found that such approach is effective in promoting more accurate language use. In a similar vein, Sheen at el.s (2009) studied six intact language classrooms in a pre-academic non-credit EFL program in a US college. The researchers seem to be more focused on two types of written correction (focused and unfocused) and they attempted to investigate the effects in using use adult EFL learners accurate use of English articles, use of grammatical features other than that which is the focus of the correction and the effect for written narrative tasks without error correction on the accurate use of grammatical features other than that which is the focus of the correction. The results confirmed the effectiveness of unfocused corrective feedback on learning English articles. As such, the findings from these studies recommend the teachers to select focused feedback with one or two errors types at one time rather than selecting too many types of errors. The Role Of Written Feedback In EFL Development The importance of feedback lies in quality, not frequency. There are some important aspects to consider before feedback is given. First, whether the provided feedback takes the learners development into account since demonstrating their progress through feedback can create extra motivation to work more efficiently. Motivation is an important part of feedback and lack of enough motivation can lower learners self-esteem. Giving feedback should be about motivating learners and at the same time focus on what they need to improve. This is a difficult balance to keep (Hyland Hyland, 2001:187). As such, the teacher needs to emphasize the efforts the learners made; that is highlighting the learners effort rather than the outcome or the effect it has had on the teacher. There is a difference between I see that you have worked very hard, good job! and I appreciate the hard work you have done! As the latter suggests that the work was done for the teacher, while the former focuses on the learne rs effort. The learners should feel that they work for themselves, not for the teacher (Good and Brophy, 1994:147). A second important aspect of feedback deals with whether the given feedback is based on a conscious strategy or it is provided without any consistent pattern. What this means is that teachers need to establish a consistent and conscious strategy in providing written feedback, so that learners become aware of the patterns of writing that is pointed out consistently by the teacher. However, a third aspect of feedback comes into play when tutors need to provide as various feedback as possible. Only writing Wow! does not say much about the work the learners have carried out. It is better to point out the parts that are impressive and explain why. Also, variation is necessary because if a teacher, for example, constantly writes Good job! the learners might not find it genuine and disregard it (Good Brophy, 1994:147). In the same token, as Harmer (2005) contends, there are more effective ways of correcting than underlining, crossing-out and putting question marks in learners written assignments. Keeping these points in mind could help to make feedback more useful for the learners, and also more appreciated. Variation may also be created through different ways of providing corrections on learners works. For instance, they may use selective correction which means not correcting every mistake the learners make. For selective corrections, the learners must be told before they start writing. If a teacher announces that, for example, only punctuation will be corrected, the learners might concentrate harder and make fewer mistakes in that area. Using correction symbols may be another way adding to variation and effectiveness of correcting. This reduces the amount of red ink all over the essay, which often lowers the learners motivation. Additionally, Harmer (2005:111) mentions reformulation, which means that the teacher shows how a particular sentence can be formulated in another way. That enables the learner to compare a correct version with an incorrect one. Moreover, referring to a dictionary in the feedback is yet another way to make learners learn. They have to look something up with a pu rpose in mind. In this way, they learn as they correct. For instance, if a mistake is difficult to explain, teachers can write ask me next to it so they can explain the mistake to the learner face-to-face. The fourth and final point central to providing effective feedback is to note whether it is restricted to form or it provides insights into the content as well. Gray (2004) suggests that effective feedback should concentrate on content, rather than form; check to see if the learners write fluently. Have they tried to use new words? Do they have the knowledge of going around the problems when their vocabulary is not extensive enough? There are more aspects to look at than only grammar. Hence, it would be a misconception if teachers focus only on mechanical error correction instead of seeking excellence in the learners writing development. With this in mind, the next section presents relevant issues in and appropriate methods of error correction in writing courses. In sum, this brief review indicates that in order to provide effective feedback, EFL teachers need to take into considerations different factors including learner motivation, teacher awareness of his/her feedback strategy, implementation of various types of feedback, and inclusion of both form-focused and content-related corrections in their feedback. These methods of providing feedback can be contrasted to traditional practices of error correction that focused mainly on formal or grammatical aspects of language. Williams (2001) suggests two main shortcomings of traditional methods of correcting grammatical errors. First, correction of learners errors has been found to be unclear and inconsistent when it deals with teachers written feedback. Second, using the traditional methods, learners simply copy their teachers feedback correction and use it in their subsequent drafts. Majority of the learners do not take their teachers written feedback into consideration and study those errors. Rewriting or copying the mistakes without recognizing the essence of the error will create a passive action preventing learners to learn from their mistake. Thus, giving the learners the correct feedback will motivate them with their writing task in a new piece of writing. 2.8 Research Into Types of Feedback on Learners Writing Feedback is just one aspect of EFL education; the other piece of an effective EFL learning programme would be feedback. Feedback occurs between teachers and learners in particular cultural, institutional, and inter-personal contexts, and learner responses are affected by different aspects of the context (Lee, 2009). In the context of EFL education, Lee (2009) examined learner perspectives on teacher feedback, wherein it has been established that in EFL education feedback anchored on the learners personality and personal needs are perceived to be more effective. Hence, the perception of learners with regard to feedback mechanisms often depends on the manner by which the EFL teacher conducts both assessment and feedback mechanisms. In another study, Diab (2005) examined the teacher preferences with regard to error correction and feedback. Through a thorough review of literature, Diab (ibid) was able to observe that more often than not, foreign language learners have different responses to feedbacks regarding pronunciation, error correction, and the importance given to grammar and vocabulary are often different from that of their tutors. Furthermore, Diab (2005) also indicted in his article that foreign language learners are more responsive to corrective feedback, both written and spoken than tutors. This is a good point raised in the sense that effort for a successful EFL programme should not only emanate from the willingness of the learners to learn but also in the ability of the tutors to be efficient and effective in performing their functions. Hy